[98] Shaykh's main goal in office was restoration of the state's authority within the sultanate, which saw further plagues in 14151417 and 1420. [147], The Mamluk sultan was the ultimate government authority, while he delegated power to provincial governors known as nuwwab as-saltana (deputy sultans, sing. The early Mamlks carried out a host of large-scale construction projects developing, extending, and intensifying the irrigation system, widening and deepening canals, erecting and strengthening dikes, and constructing dams and sluices that helped to control the system during the Nile flood season. [100] To that end, his fiscal administrator led tax collection expeditions that were akin to plundering throughout the sultanate to compensate for the tax arrears that had accumulated under Faraj's reign. The Mamluk sultan Qansuh al-Ghawri was warned by the Ottoman sultan Selim I that al-Ghawri was providing the envoys of the Ismail I safe passage through Syria on their way to Venice and harboring refugees. The Mamluks under Sultan Qutuz and Baybars routed the Mongols in 1260, halting their southward expansion. [38], While various mamluk factions competed for control of Egypt and Syria, the Mongols under the command of Hulagu Khan had sacked Baghdad, the intellectual and spiritual center of the Islamic world, in 1258, and proceeded westward, capturing Aleppo and Damascus. Title Did the Mamluks Have an Environmental Sense? Afterward, he purged and/or arrested the Mu'izziyah and any Bahri mamluks he could locate in Egypt in a bid to eliminate dissent towards his rule. [65] Early into an-Nasir Muhammad's second reign, the Ilkhanids, whose leader, Mahmud Ghazan, had converted to Islam, invaded Syria and routed a Mamluk army near Homs in the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299. of the users don't pass the Mamluks quiz! [68], Khalil's death in 1293 led to period of factional struggle, with Khalil's prepubescent brother, an-Nasir Muhammad, being overthrown the following year by a Mongol mamluk of Qalawun, al-Adil Kitbugha, who in turn was succeeded by a Greek mamluk of Qalawun, Husam ad-Din Lajin. 1: Map of the Mamluk Sultanate, 1317 CE Author: User "Ro4444" Source: Wikimedia Commons License: CC BY-SA 4.0. [11][12][10] The other official name was 'State of the Circassians' (Dawlat al-Jarakisa) during Burji rule. [144] In Sharqiya in Lower Egypt, the Tha'laba tribes were charged with overseeing the postal routes, but they were often unreliable in this regard and ultimately joined the Al A'id tribes during their raids. [140] Qalawun purchased horses from the Bedouin of Barqa, which were inexpensive but of high quality, while an-Nasir Muhammad spent extravagant sums for horses from numerous Bedouin sources, including Barqa, Syria, Iraq and Bahrayn (eastern Arabia). [200], In the art of manuscript decoration, the Qur'an was the book most commonly produced with a high degree of artistic elaboration. The Mamluk Sultanate was founded in 1250 by the Mamluk commander Qutuz. In 1323, the two parties signed a peace treaty. [110] Arabic's wide use among Muslim and non-Muslim commoners had likely been motivated by their aspiration to learn the language of the ruling and scholarly elite. [187] Furthermore, the maintenance of the Mamluk army in Syria relied on the state's control over Syrian agricultural revenues. [195], Under Sultan Barsbay, a state monopoly was established on luxury goods, namely spices, in which the state set prices and collected a percentage of profits. [155] The qaranis occasionally constituted a hostile faction to a sultan, such as in the case of Sultan as-Salih Ayyub and the Qalawuni successors of an-Nasir Muhammad. How did the Mamluks fair in combat against the Mongols? [52] In 1268, the Makurian king, David I, overthrew the Mamluks' vassal and in 1272, raided the Mamluk Red Sea port of Aydhab. Influences from the Syrian region, Ilkhanid Iran, and possibly even Venice were evident in these trends. However, an-Nasir Muhammad's senior aide, Qawsun, held real power and ultimately imprisoned and executed Abu Bakr and had an-Nasir Muhammad's infant son, al-Ashraf Kujuk, appointed in his stead. [26], Shajar ad-Durr ensured the Salihiyyah's dominance of the paramilitary elite, and ushered in a process of establishing patronage and kinship ties with the Salihiyyah. Much of the art in the Mamluk Sultanate was inspired by or purchased from trading partners in the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean Sea Trades. [26][27] The Bahriyyah compelled Aybak to share power with al-Ashraf Musa, a grandson of Sultan al-Kamil. [72] Early into his third reign, in 1310, an-Nasir Muhammad imprisoned, exiled or killed any Mamluk emirs that supported those who toppled him in the past, including the Burji mamluks. [169] Mamluk emirs also had their own ustadars. [173] Typically, a qadi or Muslim scholar would occupy the post, but in the 15th century, Mamluk emirs began to be appointed as muhtasibs in an effort to compensate emirs during cash shortages or as a result of the gradual shift of the muhtasib's role from the legal realm to one of enforcement.[175]. [55], In July 1277, Baybars died en route to Damascus, and was succeeded by Barakah. They were successful in combat, beating them at the Battle of Ain Jalut and the Battle of Homs. The Mamluk Sultanate appeared to be on a collision course with Hulagu's Ilkhanate, one of Mongol Empire's four khanates, whose forces were advancing through the Mamluk-held Levant. [162] Following the Battle of Ain Jalut, Baybars restructured the army into three components: the Royal Mamluk regiment, the soldiers of the emirs, and the halqa (non-mamluk soldiers). [92] His rule was challenged in Syria in 1389 during a revolt by the Mamluk governor of Malatya, Mintash, and the governor of Aleppo, Yalbugha an-Nasiri, who was a former mamluk of both an-Nasir Hasan and Yalbugha al-Umari. [4] In addition, the caliph recognized the sultan's authority over Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Diyarbakir, the Hejaz and Yemen and any territory conquered from the Crusaders or Mongols. While Inal and his close circle of officials were notably less tyrannical and brutal than their predecessors, the transgressions of the julban . Either way, the Mamluks were proud of their heritage. They were mostly drawn from among the Cumans-Kipchaks who controlled the steppes north of the Black Sea. [63] While the Salihi mamluks were typically Kipchak Turks, Qalawun diversified mamluk ranks purchasing numerous non-Turks, particularly Circassians, forming out of them the Burji regiment. [71] The Mamluks concurrently experienced a deterioration of their lucrative position in international trade and the economy of the sultanate declined, further weakening the Bahri regime. [145] In the mid-14th century, Bedouin tribes in Upper Egypt, namely the rival Arak and Banu Hilal, became the de facto rulers of the region, forcing the Mamluks to rely on them for tax collection. "The Mamluks and Their Acceptance of Oghuz Turkish as Literary Language: Political Maneuver or Cultural Aspiration? [72] He then assigned emirates to over thirty of his own mamluks. [184] To that end, in 1387, Barsbay established direct control over Alexandria, the principal Egyptian commercial port, thereby transferring the tax revenues of the port to the sultan's personal treasury (diwan al-khass) instead of the imperial treasury which was linked with the military's iqta system. The Mamluks were no more. [199] Architecture was the most significant form of Mamluk patronage and numerous artistic objects were commissioned to furnish Mamluk religious buildings, such as glass lamps, Qur'an manuscripts, brass candlesticks, and wooden minbars. Frontispieces were often decorated with star-shaped or hexagonal geometric motifs. [34], Meanwhile, the Bahriyya faction in Gaza commanded by Baybars sought to enlist their services with an-Nasir Yusuf. [100] However, following his death, a Circassian emir, Tatar, married Shaykh's widow, ousted the atabeg al-asakir and assumed power. Shah Ismail I sent an embassy to Venice and Syria inviting them to join arms and recover the territory taken from them by the Ottoman Empire. Nonetheless, with rare exception, the Burji sultans were all linked to the regime's founder Barquq through blood or mamluk affiliation. [196] Furthermore, in 1429, he ordered that the spice trade to Europe be conducted through Cairo before goods reached Alexandria, thus attempting to end the direct transportation of spices from the Red Sea to Alexandria. The ruling Ottomans warred between the ambitious Albanian mercenary regiment under the command of Muhammed Ali and the last remnants of the Mamluks in Cairo. [162] The Royal Mamluks were virtually the private corps of the sultan. [38], By the time of Aybak's death, the Bahriyyah had entered the service of al-Mughith Umar of al-Karak, who agreed to invade Egypt and claim the Ayyubid sultanate, but al-Mughith's small Bahri-dominated invading force was routed at the frontier with Egypt in November. How did Sultaness Shajar al-Durr solidify her rule? Sell on Amazon Other Sellers on Amazon Added Not added Add to Cart View Cart $31.81 & FREE Shipping Sold by: Book Depository US Sold by: Book Depository US (948804 ratings) 91% positive over last 12 months In stock. Best study tips and tricks for your exams. [89], Sha'ban was succeeded by his seven-year-old son al-Mansur Ali, although the oligarchy of the senior emirs held the reins of power. For example, enameled glassware was a prominent industry during the first half of the Mamluk period but declined significantly in the 15th century. That is, until the Mamluk Massacre of 1811. The war started in 1516 which led to the later incorporation of Egypt and its dependencies in the Ottoman Empire, with Mamluk cavalry proving no match for the Ottoman artillery and the janissaries. [139] Bedouin tribes were also a major source of the Mamluk cavalry's Arabian horses. [53] The latter was overthrown by Kanz al-Dawla, who an-Nasir Muhammad temporarily ousted in a 1323/24 expedition. Unlike the coastal Crusader fortresses, the Mamluks strengthened and utilized the interior cities as major garrisons and administrative centers. [122] Thus, the early Mamluk embrace of Sunni Islam also stemmed from the pursuit of a moral unity within their realm based on the majority views of its subjects. The Mamluk Sultanate survived until 1517, when it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. Mamluks Mamluks Islamic Medicine John Hunter Louis Pasteur Germ Theory Lung Cancer Mass Vaccination Medicine on the Western Front Medieval Surgery Modern Medicine Public Health Acts Public Health in Early Modern Britain The Black Death The Pharmaceutical Industry Theory of the Four Humours Welfare Reforms Spread of Islam Abd al-Malik Abu Bakr [129], The Coptic decline in Egypt occurred under the Bahri sultans and accelerated further under the Burji regime. [119] In addition, there was a significant minority of Coptic Christians. [88] The rebellious mamluks were supported by Sultan al-Ashraf Sha'ban, who Yalbugha installed in 1363. Mamluk Sultanate, 1317 CE Illustration by Ro4444 published on 13 September 2018 Download Full Size Image A map indicating the territory of the Mamluk Sultanate based in Cairo, 1317 CE. 1. Source: Ro4444, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons. [145] The Bedouin were ultimately purged from Upper and Lower Egypt by the campaigns of Emir Shaykhu in 1353. Afterward, the Mamluks proceeded to recapture Damascus and the other Syrian cities taken by the Mongols. Source: RomanDeckert, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons. [204][205][206] While Cairo was the main center of patronage, Mamluk architecture also appears in other cities of their realm such as Damascus, Jerusalem, Aleppo, and Medina. Most of the Mamluks, especially in the early years of its class, were ethnic Turks. The Mamluks reinstalled a Caliph within their Sultanate, but he acted as more of a spiritual figurehead within their state rather than a political leader. [215], After the Ottoman conquest of 1517, new Ottoman-style buildings were introduced, however the Mamluk style continued to be repeated or combined with Ottoman elements in many subsequent monuments. [177] The Mamluk state resolved to increase allotments by dispersing an individual emir's iqtaat over several provinces and for brief terms. Al-Maqrizi, al-Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar, Matabat aladab, Cairo 1996, This page was last edited on 9 January 2023, at 15:33. [49] Campaigns against the Crusaders continued in 1267, and in the spring of 1268, Baybars' forces captured Jaffa before conquering the major Crusader fortress of Antioch on 18 May. Lasting from the deposition of the Ayyubid dynasty (c. 1250) to the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517, this regime of slave-soldiers incorporated many of the political structures and cultural traditions of its Fatimid and Ayyubid predecessors. Muhammed Ali temporarily aligned himself with the Mamluks, inviting them to a grand celebration at the Citadel in Cairo. The rumor, accentuated by the execution of civilian notables who evacuated Damietta, provoked a mutiny by the garrison of his camp in al-Mansurah, which included numerous Salihi mamluks. On 24 August 1516, at the Battle of Marj Dabiq, al-Ghawri was killed. [194] However, the frequent outbreaks of the Black Plague led to a decline in the Mamluk territories' production of goods such as textiles, silk products, sugar, glass, soaps, and paper, which coincided with the Europeans' increasing production of these goods. Their presence has had an influence and an impact on the people and customs. Explore the physical, political, and human geography of North Africa, West Asia, Central Asia, and wider Islamic world . The Abbasid caliphs were the nominal sovereigns. [65] Like his two Bahri predecessors, Khalil's main priorities were organization of the sultanate, defeat of the Crusaders and the Mongols, incorporation of Syria into the Mamluk domain and preservation of the import of new mamluks and weaponry. Agricultural Bank of Egypt. Baybars subsequently assumed power in Egypt in late 1260,[40] and established the Bahri Mamluk sultanate. Secure now against Ismail I, in 1516 he drew together a great army aiming at conquering Egypt, but to obscure the fact he presented the mobilisation of his army as being part of the war against Ismail I. [84][86], Yalbugha became the regent of Hasan's successor and the young son of the late sultan Hajji, al-Mansur Muhammad. The Mamluk Sultanate A History Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 May 2022 Carl F. Petry Chapter Get access Type Chapter Information The Mamluk Sultanate A History , pp. However, Aydughdi's growing ambitions made Aybak view him as a threat. One of the Mamluk Sultanate's first tests and most significant accomplishments would be against the mighty Mongol Empire. Under Sultan Barsbay major efforts were taken to replenish the treasury, particularly monopolization of trade with Europe and tax expeditions into the countryside. [83] Coinciding with Hasan's first term,[84] in 13471348, the Bubonic Plague arrived in Egypt and other plagues followed, causing mass death in the country, which in turn led to major social and economic changes in the region. [216] In modern times, from the late 19th century onwards, a "neo-Mamluk" style also appeared, partly as a nationalist response against Ottoman and European styles, in an effort to promote local "Egyptian" styles. Decorative motifs in one art form were often applied in other art forms, including architecture. Qutuz had the emissaries killed, an act which historian Joseph Cummins called the "worst possible insult to the Mongol throne". [177] The iqta of the Muslims differed from the European concept of fiefs in that iqta represented a right to collect revenue from a fixed territory and was accorded to an officer (emir) as income and as a financial source to provision his soldiers. [53], An-Nasir Muhammad died in 1341 and his rule was followed by a succession of his descendants to the throne in a period marked by political instability. Source: Wikimedia Commons. Between 1688 and 1755, Mamluk beys, allied with Bedouin and factions within the Ottoman garrison, deposed no fewer than thirty-four governors. those soldiers who were imported while young slaves. He left about 20,000 men to fortify their position in the Middle East. [35] Aybak was assassinated on 10 April 1257,[35] possibly on the orders of Shajar al-Durr,[36] who was assassinated a week later. [71] Most of his successors, except for an-Nasir Hasan (r. 13471351, 13541361) and al-Ashraf Sha'ban (r. 13631367), were sultans in name only, with the patrons of the leading mamluk factions holding actual power. After a first attempt to defeat the Bahriyyah near Gaza failed, an-Nasir Yusuf launched a second expedition against them with al-Mansur Muhammad II of Hama, resulting in a Bahriyyah defeat at Jericho. These ports were frequented by European merchants, who in turn sold gold and silver ducats and bullion, silk, wool and linen fabrics, furs, wax, honey and cheeses. This work is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY). [137] The Mamluks brought about a similar decline of the Armenian Orthodox Church after their capture of the Armenian Cilician Kingdom in 1374, in addition to the raids of the Timurids in 1386 and the conflict between the Timurids and the nomadic Turkmen Aq Qoyunlu and Kara Qoyonlu tribal confederations in Cilicia. [101] Moreover, Barsbay compelled Red Sea traders to offload their goods at the Mamluk-held Hejazi port of Jeddah rather than the Yemeni port of Aden in order to derive the most financial benefit from the Red Sea transit route to Europe. Moreover, the major industries of sugar and textile production were also dependent on agricultural products, namely sugar cane and cotton, respectively. [201] The production of high-quality paper at this time also allowed for pages to be larger, which in turn encouraged artists to elaborate new motifs and designs to fill these larger formats. Hulagu Khan's Siege of Baghdad ended the Islamic Golden Age. [122] Regardless of the policy change, the Shafi'i scholars maintained a number of privileges over their colleagues from the other madhabs. [123] Other Sufi orders with large numbers of adherents were the Rifa'iyyah and Badawiyyah. Gender roles and relations/patriarchy . In May 1285, he captured the Marqab fortress and garrisoned it. During a brief power vacuum, the Mamluks elevated themselves from slaves to rulers of a new sultanate, the Mamluk Sultanate. Glassware was a hallmark of Mamluk art, in addition to textile production, metalwork, and pottery making. [122] Ultimately, however, the diffusion of the post of qadi al-qudah among the four madhabs enabled Mamluk sultans to act as patrons for each madhab and thus gain more influence over them. Especially Great Seljuk Empire whose origin was formed by the Turkmens had . [166] Baybars also began biweekly inspections of the troops to verify that sultanic orders were carried out, in addition to the periodic inspections in which he would distribute new weaponry to the mamluk troops. Delhi Sultanate allowed for a more self-reflective, linear foundation of the Sultanate in the practices of Muslim statecraft. Ottoman sultan Selim I captured Cairo on January 20, the center of power transferred then to Constantinople. [199] One of the best examples of this period is the so-called Baptistre of Saint-Louis (kept at the Louvre today), a large brass basin inlaid with arabesques and horizontal scenes of animals, hunters, and riders playing polo. [75] Moreover, an-Nasir Muhammad's being the son of a mamluk instead of a mamluk himself risked undermining his position among the largely mamluk elite. [131] The 14th century saw a large wave of Coptic conversions to Islam[131] as a result of the intermittent persecution and destruction of the churches[129] and forced conversion to Islam. [67] In 1291, Khalil captured Acre, the last major Crusader fortress in Palestine and thus Mamluk rule extended across the entirety of Syria. [73] By 1316, the number of mamluks was reduced to 2,000. Create the most beautiful study materials using our templates. [144] Bedouin tribal wars frequently disrupted trade and travel in Upper Egypt, and caused the destruction of cultivated lands and sugar processing plants. [101] The first expedition involved the sacking of Edessa and the massacre of its Muslim inhabitants in retaliation for the Aq Qoyonlu's raids against the Mamluks' Mesopotamian territories. [206][204], The cruciform or four-iwan floor plan was adopted for madrasas and became more common for new monumental complexes than the traditional hypostyle mosque, although the vaulted iwans of the early period were replaced with flat-roofed iwans in the later period. [100], Barsbay pursued an economic policy of establishing state monopolies over the lucrative trade with Europe, particularly regarding spices, to the chagrin of the civilian merchants of the sultanate. There was a significant minority of Coptic Christians [ 119 ] in,... He then assigned emirates to over thirty of his own Mamluks either way, Mamluks... In Gaza commanded by Baybars sought to enlist their services with an-Nasir.... 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mamluk sultanate interactions with the environment
